People choose certain diets to prevent various health-related ailments or complications such as cardiovascular diseases, obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and cancer. Nevertheless, some people focus more on the environmental impact of certain dietary choices on an ecosystem as a means of preserving biodiversity, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and safeguarding the resource base for food production for future generations. In fact, a diet’s environmental impact is inextricably linked to its health impact. Simply put, what is bad for the planet is bad for people; what is good for the planet is good for people. Lower consumptions of meat and dairy have both health- and earth-related co-benefits [1].
1. Introduction
Plant-based diets (i.e., vegetarian and vegan diets) generally exclude or limit the consumption of meat and dairy products while allowing ample intake of other plant foods. Plant-based diets are remarkably healthy, curbing many diet-related ailments and complications. Likewise, a plausible shift towards plant-based diets would mitigate the global burden of climate change and counteract other environmental woes such as deforestation, land encroachment, and habitat disintegration. What is needed is a refined understanding of the link between diet and infectious and lifestyle-related diseases, a more nuanced comprehension of the co-benefits of different dietary groups on the earth and human health, and a greater understanding of people’s outlook about dietary choices and their challenges that would ultimately aid in paving the way for the successful promotion and adoption of plant-based diets.
1.1. Background and Rationale
Plant-based diets have gained momentum and popularity around the world over the past two decades. This can partly be attributed to a preventive approach to a more health-conscious lifestyle given the rise in diet-related diseases [2]. There has been an increasing shift towards implementing plant-based alternatives, resulting in growing interest from academics, industry, and policymakers alike. However, plant-based diets are not without their criticisms. There are concerns around nutritional deficiency such as vitamin B12, calcium, iron, or iodine; obstacles in converting existing supply chains; and the affordability and accessibility of these products. Additionally, unhealthy plant-based alternatives soaked in fat, sugar, salt, and preservatives could be consumed in excess, ultimately counteracting any potential health benefits.
Growing evidence on the environmental impact of dietary patterns has demonstrated that the consumption of animal products is one of the largest contributors to environmental pressures [1]. With the global population expected to reach 10 billion by 2050, ensuring food security without compromising planetary health is one of the largest challenges of the 21st century. Therefore, a global dietary shift towards more plant-based eating is seen as one of the most practicable solutions to meet climate targets while improving public health. Key policymakers, such as the WHO in its EAT-Lancet commission, have acknowledged the need for this shift.
1.2. Scope of the Study
The scope of concerns the antibiotic resistance effects due to antibiotic fed practices of animal-based diet foods. The scope of the study also covers possible harm due to the development of superbugs primarily in food chain. The essay concludes with positive behavioral changes to alter food perceptions by adopting plant-based diet strategies.
Antibiotic used in current feedlot practices is primarily responsible for superbug growth. The concern of antibiotic-induced superbugs in commercial meat foods on public health accessibility is very crucial and alarming [3]. Antimicrobial resistant bacteria and genetic codes could travel through food chains alternate animals to compound consumer’s health. These superbugs could hops to human health through consumption of animal meat, dairy, and animal by-products. The widespread emergence of superbugs in the food sector may result in high financial consequences on individuals like medical expenses and loss of income due to extended illness or long hospital stays. It could thereby enlarge the cost for all like compiled medical insurance payments and healthcare sectors. All in all, the impact of health burden could be high worldwide if antibiotic feeds continue.
2. Nutritional Aspects of Plant-Based Diets
Adoption of plant-based diets and food systems is an integral part of improving global health and environmental sustainability. Such changes will help avert the communicable and non-communicable diseases caused by poor diets while addressing climate change, food insecurity, inequity, and loss of biodiversity. Plant-based diets emphasize whole, unprocessed or minimally processed, seasonal, and local foods, with the exclusion of animal-based foods and food products, highly processed foods, refined carbohydrates, additives, preservatives, and sweeteners [4]. Plant-based diets contribute nutritional adequacy through the provision of energy, essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and bioactive compounds protecting against malnutrition, overweight, obesity, and other chronic diseases. Importantly, a plant-based diet excludes or minimizes animal-based meat, dairy, and egg foods to avoid the adverse relationship of those foods with cardio-metabolic and other chronic diseases.
Consumption of plant-plant nutritional components improves overall dietary quality, including healthier dietary patterns in younger and pregnant populations and refugee and immigrant groups. Ingredients of the plant-based diets, specifically legumes and whole grains, provide soluble and insoluble fiber essential for the maintenance of gut health and the prevention of obesity, diabetes, and heart diseases [2]. Moreover, legumes and nuts responsible for the dietary intake of unsaturated fatty acids help reduce LDL-C and triglyceride levels in the blood hence minimizing the risk of heart diseases and stroke among populations of different age groups. Some of the nutrient components in plant-based foods, notably fibers, vitamins, and minerals, exhibit potential anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cytotoxic activity, hence suppressing the chances of cancer cell proliferation.
2.1. Key Nutrients in Plant-Based Diets
Plants are a major dietary source for many essential nutrients. The term essential refers to nutrients that must be obtained from the diet because they are not synthetized in adequate amounts by the human body. Essential nutrients are important for growth, development and regulation of physiological functions [2]. Hence, diets deficient in one or more essential nutrients can negatively affect human health. Highly diverse plant foods can contribute to meeting a balanced diet by providing essential nutrients. Macro-nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids) are components in the diet providing energy. Proteins mainly play a structural role for bodily tissues (muscles, organ, skin, hair, etc.), but they also play a physiological role (hormones, enzymes, antibodies, etc.). Proteins consist of amino acids that can be categorized into essential (indispensable) and non-essential (dispensable) amino acids for human. Proteins from animal foods usually have better amino acid profile than plant foods [5]. However, with a varied diet, diets with 100% plant foods can still meet the human body’s needs for amino acids. In addition to proteins, plant foods provide carbohydrates and lipids. Carbohydrate-rich plant foods contribute to the daily intake of sugars and starches. Sugars and starches (complex sugars) are broken down into glucose by the body which subsequently is used for energy. Lipid-rich foods are mainly sources of saturated/unsaturated oils and proximate fat-soluble vitamins a, D, E, and K. Generally, unsaturated oils are of plant origin and saturated oils are of animal origin.
2.2. Potential Nutritional Deficiencies
In line with the aforementioned positive aspects of a plant-based diet, it’s worth considering that certain deficiencies may arise if there is no attention to a balanced nutritional intake. Firstly, Vitamin B12 occurs primarily in animal sources. A deficiency can cause impairment in DNA synthesis and eventually lead to anemia, megaloblastic changes in the bone marrow, and neural impairments [2]. Vitamins B6 and D come in other forms when non-animal sources are consumed. Thus, there is a possibility of their conversion being impaired, rendering them deficient [6]. Additionally, these vitamins also had a nutrient density lower than 0.75 in vegetarians and vegans, increasing the risk of inadequacy/gap in intake.
With an adequate intake at the population level, it is interesting to note that vitamin E can also be a potential nutritional deficiency for some individuals. Intake was often lower in those consuming vegetarian diets. Considering its antioxidative properties, damage by free radicals may increase the risk of different health issues, especially in heart disease. Individuals consuming very low-fat diets may not achieve an adequate intake of vitamin E without attention to food sources of oils and fats. Reports showed that the intake of beta-carotene was higher among vegans due to an increased intake of oranges, mango, pumpkin, and green leafy vegetables. Inadequacy of retinol can impair the health of the epithelial tissue. Consequently, a vitamin A deficiency may also result in ocular issues. Vegans should be attentive to the dietary need for foods high in beta-carotene.
3. Health Benefits of Plant-Based Diets
Many studies have examined the health advantages of plant-based diets. Several large and long-term studies starting in the mid-twentieth century and continuing to today indicate that individuals who do not consume animal products have lower risks of heart disease, obesity, high blood pressure, diabetes, kidney stones, gallstones, arthritis, osteoporosis, and certain cancers [1]. A plant-based diet tends to be lower in calories, total fat, saturated fat, sodium, cholesterol, and antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E. In contrast, individuals on such a diet consume additional fiber and health-protective compounds, such as vitamins A, B 6, folic acid, potassium, magnesium, phytochemicals, and a wide range of phytonutrients [7].
Studies with blood pressure and a diet high in fruits and vegetables containing potassium have been shown. One diet emphasizing potassium foods and other potential blood pressure-lowering components was based on a vegetarian diet. This research subsequently used a randomized controlled trial to confirm the health effects of a vegetarian diet (vegetables, fruits, grains, soy products, and other legumes). The result was a consistent finding of dietary fiber, affordable potassium, all magnesium sources, antioxidant vitamins, and vanadium. Such a diet can alter the diet positively with a wider variety of foods and a supplement of vitamins. Evaluation of food frequency showed that after adopting a vegetarian diet, potassium intake increased and sodium intake decreased significantly.
3.1. Cardiovascular Health
Plant-based diets have been shown to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, stroke, and congestive heart failure. A review of 55 peer-reviewed articles demonstrates that these diets have physiological effects resulting from their bioactive nutrients. Killing aberrant cells is facilitated by an adequate intake of fiber, antioxidants, polyunsaturated fats, and phytosterols, while the development of atherosclerosis is inhibited through improved glycemic, lipid, and inflammatory profiles. Other cardiac diseases, including myocardial ischemia and cardiomyopathy, are also negatively impacted by this dietary pattern.
Coronary artery disease (CAD), a major component of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Protein-rich diets, particularly those of animal origin, have been implicated in the development of CAD through a plethora of mechanisms, including inflammation, oxidative stress, glycation, and more. A meta-analysis comparing vegetarians with non-vegetarians showed a 29% lower risk of CAD, while a review provided compelling evidence of the protective effects of vegetarianism. However, little is known about the specific impacts of various types of plant-based diets (PBDs) on CAD [8].
3.2. Weight Management
Weight concerns have become an increasing topic regionally and worldwide due to the rapid growth of overweight and obesity as a public health challenge [9]. Coincidently, people’s dietary patterns have also changed towards more consuming energy-dense foods, which is reflected by a worldwide rise in meat consumption at a rate quicker than population growth. In line with this trend, there is an increasing number of people reforming their dietary patterns to vegetarian diets (VD), or even stricter plant-based diets including vegan diets (VD), focusing on only plant foods and abstaining from eating animal-derived products. Along with animal welfare, there is a desire for health benefits, including weight management, which is a contributing factor to convert to a plant-based diet. Studies investigating the relationship between plant-based diets and weight status revealed significant reductions in body mass index (BMI) and weight in many of the analysed community cohorts. Moreover, a larger weight reduction was observed in studies with stricter plant-based diets, where the intake of animals’ food was restricted the most. However, despite this interest, there appears to be a lack of research focusing on food interventions with plant-based diets targeting educative communities, including employees, and students of higher educational institutions, which are believed to be at a higher risk of health problems due to a busy lifestyle. Grains, leguminous, roots/tubers, nuts and seeds, vegetables, fruits, algae and mushrooms are commonly consumed in a plant-based diet. In contrast, red meat, white meat, dairy and egg products are often avoided. A plant-based diet is linked with positive health benefits including lower weight, BMI and risk for chronic diseases [10].
3.3. Cancer Prevention
The human diet is one of the most impactful lifestyle choices. Well-planned plant-based diets have been recommended for the prevention and overall improvement of body health. General health benefits of plant-based diets are discussed, focusing on the prevention of coronary heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, and certain types of cancer, such as colon, breast, and prostate cancer. Specifically highlighting plant-based diets, there is a discussion of classes of foods that may reduce cancer risk. Finally, a discussion of the environmental impact of meat consumption examines how meat production and consumption damage the environment and contributions vegetarian alternatives can make to mitigate those effects [1]. Despite widespread research efforts, cancer remains a leading cause of death worldwide. Cancer is not a single disease; it, like the diseases comprising the cardiovascular group, is considered a heterogeneous disease group involving uncontrolled cell division and growth. The causes of cancer are many, but cancer is considered to be largely a preventable disease. According to estimates by the World Health Organization (WHO) International Agency for Research on Cancer, 90%–95% of the risk is believed to be rooted in environmental and lifestyle factors [11]. There are a number of lifestyle factors believed to increase the risk of developing cancer, including: tobacco use, diet, alcohol intake, excessive exposure to the sun, environmental pollutants, certain infections, levels of stress, obesity, and physical inactivity.
4. Environmental Impact of Plant-Based Diets
The environmental impacts of plant-based diets have gained increasing attention in recent years. The availability of large, population-wide datasets has made it possible, for the first time, to quantify the environmental implications of a range of dietary choices, from strict veganism to omnivorous eating patterns. There have been large and growing efforts to examine how the food production and consumption systems can change in ways that minimize their impacts on climate change, water use, biodiversity loss, etc [12]. There is an ongoing attempt to identify “sustainable diets” that are not only nutritious and affordable but also reduce resource use, greenhouse gas emissions, and biodiversity loss. Moreover, there have been calls for many countries to adopt diets that reduce meat and dairy consumption but as of yet, it is unclear what the environmental footprint of the plant-based eating actually is.
Moreover, every individual’s food choices are a substantial contributor to climate change and biodiversity loss [13]. For the vast majority of the world’s population, the environmental footprints are dramatically smaller if they abstain from meat and dairy than if they engage in a typical western diet. Nevertheless, there is a need to move beyond generalized mechanisms and pursue robust evidence on the environmental footprint of plant-based eating. More specifically, there is a need to understand the effects of the incremental expansion of plant-based consumption. However, there comes both a methodological challenge and an ethical dilemma.
4.1. Resource Use
The resource requirement of plant-based diets was examined as the percentage of consumption of the resource compared to that of the reference diet of 2001 in National Health and Nutrition Survey 2001-2004. The resource requirement of each plant-based diet-scenerio is compared with its respective index diet. There are four factors affecting resource consumption from diet data: land, water, energy usage [13]. Land is required for industrial purpose, agriculture and housing estate. This land is planned and designed for permanent use. Land use is categorized by gross land use and net land use, where gross land use indicates direct and indirect land consumption and net land use indicates designated land produce food. Water is used for farming, producing and industrial works and drinking. Water usage is differences between the input water and water returned after process. Energy is the sources of large power needed for finances, industrial purpose and agriculture, which can be used to do work or provide heat. This energy usage is distinction between the usage value and paid amount. The methods of calculating land, water, and energy consumption are based on the factors of energy system, water cycle, driving forces, land resource, and land type.
4.2. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are having profound effects on the planet. They are contributing to climate change, which will have negative downstream effects on the hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere. The composition of GHG emissions in 2004 was 56% carbon dioxide (CO2), 18% methane (CH4), and 6% nitrous oxide (N2O). To mitigate climate change, the reduction of GHG emissions is required [14]. One area of interest is the emissions from food production and consumption. Most food-related emissions arise from entry-level food production, specifically the agriculture and fisheries sub-sectors. As GHG emissions contribute to climate change, researching the link between dietary choices and GHG emissions is even more important to understand how altering dietary patterns can reduce GHG emissions.
Demand reductions in red and processed meat can significantly lower diet-related GHG emissions in the UK. With the growing global consumer market for meat, further growth of the livestock sector will likely increase greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions significantly unless interventions are implemented. Despite the emergence of some integrated assessments attempting to balance the health and environmental impacts, there is still a need for a comprehensive understanding of the health and environmental impacts of dietary choices within the US context, considering the existing food supply [12].
4.3. Biodiversity Conservation
Decreasing the consumption of animal products and increasing the consumption of more plant-based foods within diets could play a central role in combating the biodiversity crisis. A plant-based diet places little demand on land for feed crops and animal products compared to an animal-based diet and is at least three times as efficient in converting land to food. Because of this great efficiency, conversion of to plant-based diets would not only lead to reduced impairment of the environment given that the intact ecosystems needing protection are on land, it would also increase the chances of halting biodiversity loss and ecosystems degradation [12]. The great need for feeding Earth’s population in 2050 will surpass the land potentially available for crops thereby aggravating the biodiversity crisis. On the other hand, it seems possible to greatly reduce scores for both biodiversity loss and land conversion for food by transitioning to a plant-based diet. Despite these clear advantages of a plant-based diet over one that is more animal-based and less plant-based, no focus has been given at a national or supranational level on diets and biodiversity. Measures based on the risks and impacts of livestock and the meat, dairy, and egg industries are urgently needed to mobilize public awareness [15].
5. Comparative Studies
Consumption of a vegetarian diet may be associated with more favorable health behaviors than a nonvegetarian diet. This study aimed to analyze the differences in a number of these health behaviors between vegetarian and nonvegetarian subjects [2]. The subjects were 564 meat eaters and non-meat eaters in the Netherlands between 20 and 69 years of age. A standardized questionnaire was used to analyze the differences in dietary habits (i.e., number of meals and snacks per day, breakfast consumption, intake of morning drinks and herbal teas, occasion of eating dinner, and consumption of take away food) and other health behaviors (i.e., alcohol intake, smoking, education level, body mass index, self-rated health, and frequency of exercise). Vegetarians consumed more meals and snacks per day, consumed breakfast more often, consumed herbal teas less often, and ate dinner earlier than nonvegetarians. With regard to other health behavior variables, more subjects in the vegetarian group had a low body mass index, and a higher education level. Furthermore, more nonvegetarian subjects were daily smokers. Overall, both groups had comparable lifestyle choices such as self-rated health and alcohol intake [1].
This study contributes to a better understanding of health differences behind dietary choice and raises questions to what extent health impacts are positively or negatively influenced by vegetarian diets versus omnivorous diets, or dietary choices, dietary patterns, or the combinations thereof. A better understanding of the reasons for dietary choice will improve policy and outreach to change dietary patterns towards healthier and more sustainable diets. Further, more insight into the relationship between dietary patterns, lifestyle, and health outcomes, through longitudinal studies, will enhance the knowledge of the potential win-win opportunities of health and environmental impact associated with dietary changes.
5.1. Health Outcomes of Plant-Based vs. Omnivorous Diets
Different dietary choices can have varied effects on health and sustainability. designed a web-based and smartphone app-based plant-based diet (PBD) promoting program and carried out a randomized controlled trial to compare its efficacy in improving self-efficacy, diet quality, and health outcomes relative to an education-based program. Eligible participants were adults with ≥ 1 cardiovascular disease risk factor and <15 PBD score who were recruited from a community in Daegu, South Korea. The control group received leaflet providing cooking techniques and nutrition information on plant-based foods. The PBD promoting program included healthy eating principles, cooking demonstrations, and self-efficacy enhancement strategies. Measures of diet self-efficacy, diet quality, and anthropometrics were administered at baseline and 3 months post-intervention. A total of 114 participants were randomized to control (n=57) or intervention (n=57). Compared to the control group, participants in the PBD promoting group experienced greater improvement in diet self-efficacy, diet quality scores, and lower weight and waist circumference after 3 months (p<0.05). Results indicate that a web-based and smartphone app-based PBD promoting program is more efficacious than an education-based program for achieving improved diet self-efficacy, diet quality, and weight outcomes among community-dwelling adults at risk for cardiovascular disease ().
Both plant-based diets and omnivorous diets can be associated with different health outcomes. While plant-based diets may be beneficial for several health outcomes, the evidence is not very robust. However, there is a considerable demand for informative insights from an evidence-based perspective on the health effects of plant-based versus omnivorous diets. A systematic review was conducted of studies that adhered strictly to the definition of plant-based diets or omnivorous diets. Moreover, studies were included only if they examined the health effects of these dietary patterns on a level of detail and consistency that were satisfactory for meta-analysis [9].
5.2. Environmental Footprint of Plant-Based vs. Animal-Based Diets
Diet has a substantial impact on both health and the ecosystem, which has become evident in many recent studies. Such studies have pointed out how dietary choices, which include both what foods one consumes and how these foods are grown, raised, and transported, affect the burning of oil, coal, and gas among others [12]. A more vegetation-based diet is thought to improve sustainable development, however, such evidence is still relatively scarce for entire dietary patterns on a wide range of environmental issues. A growing body of evidence shows that the replacement of animal foods with plant foods leads to soil degradation, heart disease, stroke, diabetes, some cancers, and many other ailments [16]. Given the growing concern regarding climate change, species extinction, energy consumption, water scarcity, and soil degradation, among other things, there is a global urge to fulfil the goals proposed in international summits such as REDD+, the Earth Charter, and the Sustainable Development Goals and to adopt lifestyles that can maintain future generations.
In an attempt to fill this gap, here it is presented two comparisons of sustainable diets with substantial differences in their total environmental impacts. The first study compared the Environmental Impact (EI) of the diet of 153 Italian adults: 51 omnivores, 51 ovo-lacto-vegetarians, and 51 vegans. Results showed that the omnivorous choice generated worse carbon, water, and ecological footprints than the other diets. Nevertheless, it was found that no differences were apparent for the environmental impacts of the ovo-lacto-vegetarians and vegans, which also had diets more adherent to the Mediterranean pattern. The second study carried out a comparison of the EI of 182 adults from Southern Italy who followed either a plant-based vegan diet or a diet based on the Mediterranean tradition enriched with fish, eggs, and dairy foods. Switching from the Mediterranean diet to the vegan diet showed a significant improvement in all the environmental impact categories examined, especially for ecosystems and human health.
6. Public Health Implications
Plant-based diets are an area of growing public interest due to concerns over the sustainability of current food systems and the health implications of adopting this diet style. As a consequence, there is a need to investigate ways of increasing the proportion of plant foods in the global diet [17]. It is acknowledged that this is a complex social issue involving values and beliefs relating to food choice and culture. As such, strategies aimed at changing dietary behaviour to favour increased plant food consumption typically need to take a multifaceted approach [1]. Several areas of public health intervention are suitable for promoting plant-based diets which could incorporate both local and national initiatives. These range from community-based engagement strategies through to the development of national dietary guidelines and food-based dietary recommendations. It is recommended that all public health bodies engage in three core activities to promote plant-based diets: a) develop an understanding of the health, environmental, and economic benefits of plant-based diets; b) review current national food-based dietary recommendations and consider how they could be re-structured to reflect plant-based diets; c) develop effective and coherent strategies to communicate this information to relevant stakeholders (e.g., healthcare professionals, school caterers, the food industry). There is a growing body of research demonstrating the feasibility of promoting diets with high proportions of plant foods. A number of food-based dietary recommendations aiming at increasing the intake of plant foods have been developed both nationally and globally. The public health implications of these strategies have not yet been systematically addressed.
6.1. Policy Recommendations
The aim of this subsection is to influence and inform public health stakeholders about research based on the consequences of individual dietary choice, with a specific focus on the adoption of plant-based diets. The purpose is to impact public health at the population level. Accordingly, there is a focus on potential policy recommendations for consideration by government and other agencies working in the public health arena. Three main types of intervention are highlighted, focusing on the adoption of plant-based diets as a means of reducing the health and environmental impacts of current dietary behaviours.
One option is to target earlier life stages, such as children or adolescents. There is an opportunity to shape dietary habits through health-focused interventions within school settings which also have the potential for wider societal change. Traditionally, areas of policy development have been controlled and enacted from the ‘top-down’, though in recent times there has been recognition that a more participatory, ‘bottom-up’ approach, with consultation and engagement of community and societal stakeholders, is more desirable and likely to be effective [1]. In particular, in the social marketing sphere, an emphasis on understanding the perspective of the target audience and using this understanding as a basis for policy decision-making is encouraged. There is an opportunity for greater collaboration between public health researchers and professional practitioners to understand these life-stages better and the implications for policy development. Further investigation is required into how to better tap into the perspective of children, for example through the involvement of children with a greater role and input in policy decision-making [18].
6.2. Health Promotion Strategies
Focusing on health promotion, three sections are devoted to offering actionable strategies for encouraging healthier dietary patterns at a population level. A new and innovative plant-based dietary pattern health promotion strategy based on an established dietary guidelines framework is proposed. Also, a food-based plant-based dietary guideline is developed, tested, and refined. A second microscale intervention study to promote plant-based diets at Australian TAFE colleges is established. The rationale, methods, and design of the studies are presented.
Also presented are results from formative research that demonstrates some public knowledge of links between dietary choice and health and environmental impacts relevant to adapting plant-based dietary guidelines but is not enough to predict young adults’ adoption of a strictly plant-based diet. Chain reaction modelling of the sensitivity of ten different attributes indicates that a combination of barriers including taste preferences for meat and meat as a cultural stabilizer and concern about plant-based diets’ healthiness and being able to feed themselves and their family emergency situations hold significant leverage in adopting more vegan or vegetarian diets [19]. The qualitative study on motivations behind young Australian adults’ adoption of going vegetarian reveals that concern for health, ethics, and the environment [1]. Overall, both positive motivations and concerns or doubting beliefs about a plant-based dietary pattern should be considered in its promotion.
7. Culinary and Lifestyle Considerations
Plant-based diets have gained popularity in recent years, and for good reason. There are numerous health benefits along with a myriad of environmental benefits. This section addresses culinary and lifestyle aspects with plant-based diets, specifically with recipes and meal planning tips. It is a goal to provide individuals with the tools they need to incorporate plant-based eaters into their daily lives. There is a collection of easy-to-navigate recipes with a variety of meal options, such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, snacks, and desserts [1]. Each recipe includes a photo, ingredients, cooking instructions, and nutritional information. This section also includes impactful tips to help meal prep and eat healthy on a budget. Overall, this recipes and tips section will be easy for individuals and families to get started with a healthy and sustainable plant-based diet.
Diets based on plant foods provide all the nutrients needed for an active and healthy lifestyle and offer considerable advantages in terms of longevity, health, and the environment [2]. However, eating more plant-based is a lifestyle shift that can be overwhelming, and many people are unsure where to start. A common misperception around healthier diets is that the recipes might be complicated and take a long time to prepare. With the right information and resources, switching to a plant-based diet can be simple, inexpensive, and quick.
7.1. Recipe Ideas
For those new to plant-based diets, here are some recipe ideas to get started. Use the ingredients and cooking methods from these recipes as inspiration to explore plant-based foods in your own creative way. And remember to enjoy the process of cooking and eating!
Buckle up for southwestern burritos stuffed with savory black beans, roasted corn, roasted red peppers, salsa, and spice mix enclosed in warm tortillas and briefly toasted for extra crispness! Crunchy lettuce, refreshing tomato, creamy avocado, and spiced sour cream with lime juice balance the flavors perfectly. Try this burrito bowl version for meal prep.
Fire up the grill or oven for flavorful veggie burgers! Marinated and grilled portobello mushrooms with melted vegan (or regular) mozzarella, lettuce, tomato, and zesty Italian dressing on a toasted bun make a delightful combo. Try a Mediterranean burger with roasted red peppers, artichokes, capers, and hummus, or a Thai-inspired burger with grilled pineapple and peanut-cilantro sauce. Have fun with different toppings!
Some thrills should be tasted! Serve spicy sweet potato wedges as a modern twist on a classic side with sweet ketchup, or try them plain as a shareable appetizer perfect for game day. Season thick-cut sweet potato fries with smoked paprika, garlic powder, pepper, cayenne, and salt, or opt for rosemary and garlic oil with parmesan cheese for a Mediterranean spin. Enjoy these beauties hot from the oven with toppings of your choice!
7.2. Meal Planning Tips
Finding a meal plan that works for you can make adapting to a plant-based diet simple and easy. These meal planning tips focus on structuring balanced and nutritious plant-based meals and can help in extending a plant-based diet into a healthy lifestyle.
Balanced Meals for an Entire Day
There are a variety of plant foods to include in daily meals. Here is a list of foods, organized by category, to include when meal planning: 1. Protein foods each day (at least three cups of protein foods) * Lentils * Legumes (canned or dried) * Tofu * Tempeh * Seitan * Nuts and seeds (or nut/seed butters) * Nutritional yeast 2. Whole grains each day (at least three cups of whole grains) * Brown rice * Quinoa * Farro * Whole grain bread or wraps * Whole grain pasta 3. Colorful fruits and veggies each day (at least three cups of fruits and three cups of vegetables) * Leafy greens (kale, spinach, arugula) * Red and orange veggies (carrots, red bell peppers, cherry tomatoes) * Purple and blue veggies (beets, red cabbage, eggplant) * Strawberries * Apples 4. Healthy fats each day (1 to 2 avocados or cups of cooked fat) * Avocados * Olive oil * Coconut oil * Tahini 5. Optional: Plant-based milk to use with oatmeal, cereal, or smoothies (unsweetened varieties recommended) * Almond milk * Soy milk * Oat milk
8. Global Perspectives
While modern vegetarianism is largely an outgrowth of Western ideals concerning health, animal rights, and dietary choices, numerous societies worldwide adhere to vegetarian practices, some for millennia. Cultural factors affecting adherence to a plant-based diet include religion and traditions, health consciousness, economic circumstances, and environmental awareness [20]. Understanding the cultural differences and similarities in plant-based diets can aid efforts to promote vegetarianism, particularly in societies with a weaker vegetarian tradition.
There is an apparent divide across a number of culture and dietary choice factors between countries with traditional vegetarian practices and a number of western nations. In some of the countries investigated, women are more likely to adhere to a plant-based diet and there is a relative concern for animal rights and welfare, while strongly religious nations exhibit the greatest adherence to vegetarianism. Vegetarianism also appears less likely among nations with high gross domestic product (GDP) or meat consumption score [17]. There is a significant need for health-conscious food production systems.
Global Initiatives for Plant-Based Diets
Plant-based diets are gaining increasing prominence in global discourse on sustainable food systems, and FAO is actively engaged in this discussion, including hosting the annual World Plant-Based Forum. There are food systems initiatives at global scales addressing governance, engagement, environmental strategies, and health, which explicitly reference dietary choices. International initiatives encouraging and aiding countries to adopt healthier and more plant-based diets and food systems are underway, such as the Global Framework for Climate Action in Agriculture and Food Systems (WMO) and the Global Transformation Campaign on Food Systems for Children & Youth 2023 (UNICEF). The G20 and G7 Global Partnerships pillar of Resilient Recovery Global Summit hosting countries also reference plant-based food systems and diets as a pathway to a sustainable and just future.
8.1. Cultural Variations in Plant-Based Diets
Plant-based diets encompass a diverse range of eating practices that vary in terms of specific foods consumed, such as grains, legumes, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds. In a broader sense, plant-focused eating habits—those where plant-based foods make up a larger share of the diet than animal-based foods—can be described as plant-based. Food cultures have developed distinct customs and practices concerning the selection, preparation, and consumption of plant foods, leading to an intricate web of routines and a practice of understanding that is learned and passed down through generations. In every country or region, there are a few, more or less well-defined, noteworthy eating practices that stand out from the rest, contributing to the cultural character of that particular region, society, or group. The aim is to gain insight into how plant-based diets are culturally varied [21].
The dietary habits of most of the large or populous conurbations, cities, or metropolitan areas in the world are generally well-documented. Such gathering places do, for better or for worse, harbor cultural commonalities or similarities that are of interest when mapping urban plant-based diets [22]. In Western countries, for instance, interest in vegan and vegetarian dietary regimens is rapidly growing and coming to the fore in the public consciousness in terms of lifestyle and dietary change as well as concern over climate change, the environment, and global inequalities. Hence, it is thought, mass consumption of meat poses a problem. Therefore, there are few urban eating practices that are better characterized in terms of potential global spread than those centered on veganism or vegetarianism. Morally inspired eating practices can signify uniqueness and give a sense of belonging.
8.2. International Initiatives for Sustainable Food Systems
Food security and nutrition (FSN) and food systems are inextricably linked. The transformation of the food system constitutes one of the most pressing challenges in achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Agriculture, land use, forests, human and animal health, and other food systems have a major impact on global warming, loss of biodiversity, depletion of freshwater resources, and other environmental pressures [20]. Globally, there are recent initiatives to focus on food systems, including the Food Systems Summit, which aims to identify ways to transform food systems to benefit planetary and human health, as well as related initiatives such as the Development and Climate Alliance, which has identified food systems as a key area for increasing climate ambition [1].
Buy-in from a wide range of stakeholders is essential for creating sustainable food systems. For efforts to be equitable and uphold human rights as well as socioeconomic rights, it will be particularly important to empower the most vulnerable stakeholders. Farmers, herders, fishers, and other food producers, and especially those that are relying on subsistence production, local markets, and informal supply chains, are the first link in the food chain and need to be part of goals and targets in transforming the food system. Special attention also needs to be paid to women, youth, and marginalized ethnic and racial groups. To help efficiently coordinate stakeholders’ efforts, it will be important to clarify how plants, animals, and natural resources are used, shared, and valued. Defining the characteristics of sustainable food systems and how to measure and monitor progress will be essential. This food systems approach has the potential to frame the challenges and opportunities such that an economic return would make it worthwhile to invest in animal and plant-based foods in LMICs with its accompanying ecosystem services.
9. Conclusion and Future Directions
This dietary review highlights the health benefits of a plant-based diet and how important it is in the changing climate. A diet inclusive of plants has been shown to help in preventing diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and certain cancers when they become a major food group. The shift towards more plant-based diets can also help alleviate the food crisis and limitation of agriculture in the future. Considering the approaching world crisis of food and climate change, it is vital to seek future solutions and new avenues for research.
Suggestions for future research include mechanistic research investigating in-depth and long-term studies of plants in the diet. The need for technological innovation in a world craving more meat will also result in plant companies integrating more plants into products often food companies may not have considered, thus pushing more plant diversity. There is also a need for a worldwide effort to create global dietary recommendations and research into assessing how countries are recommended to eat. With the meat industry being the greatest contributor to environmental collapse, the ability for further studies linking dietary patterns to countries’ emission outcomes is interesting and needs to be investigated.
9.1. Summary of Findings
Adoption of a plant-based diet can greatly reduce an individual’s environmental impact, as conventional and intensive agriculture (particularly in the livestock sector) contributes significantly to environmental problems such as biodiversity loss, pollution of soil and water, climate change, and land degradation. Shifting toward a more plant-based diet, consisting of more fruits, vegetables, nuts, plant-based protein sources, or non-animal-based alternatives could significantly decrease greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs) of the food consumed, suggesting that dietary choice may play a key role in combating environmental problems [1]. Moreover, elimination of high GHGE foods from the diet could lead to substantial GHGES savings, as “high” GHGE foods such as red meat and dairy exhibited the highest contribution to food GHGES [4].
Aside from benefits for the environment, a plant-based diet also has health benefits. Healthier dietary options do not necessarily have a lower health risk. It was therefore demonstrated that eliminating or moderating intakes of high-risk foods instead contributes to improved health risk scores. New modeling approaches show that, with a few exceptions, the majority of plant-based foods exhibit a low health risk, while the majority of unhealthy foods exhibit a high health risk. This transformation of dietary patterns, culminating in a combined shift toward more plant-based dietary options, could help in addressing two major global challenges of the twenty-first century: improving public health while concurrently promoting environmental sustainability.
9.2. Research Gaps and Opportunities
In recent years, the rise in popularity of plant-based diets has been facilitated by the development of new alternatives to meat and dairy that are intended to imitate their taste and texture. Many of these products are considered “very” or “extremely” meat-like, and a couple of them even compete with animal products in terms of price. However, such products are not produced without environmental burdens. This, together with a less-plant-mimicking alternative such as a whole-foods plant-based (WFPB) diet, raises questions about how these alternative dietary styles affect the trade-offs between health and environmental aspects [4]. Academic literature is rich in health and environmental modeling studies individually addressing either healthier or more sustainable alternatives, but few studies explore the trade-offs and the synergies between health and environmental aspects simultaneously. Therefore, after outlining potential health and environmental impacts of a typical shift towards the increasingly popular WFPB diet style with its own meat- and dairy-free alternatives, a post-modeling analysis is conducted, using the ILCD approach, to portray potential trade-offs or synergies of dietary transition scenarios from a health and environmental perspective in Europe based on the impact assessment results of this dietary style change [1].
Nutrition and diet-related chronic diseases are a global health concern, posing huge burdens to countries and considerably affecting citizens’ quality of life. Unhealthy dietary habits resulting from industrialization and urbanization, including a reduced intake of fruits and vegetables, excessive consumption of red/processed meat, high-fat dairy, sugar-sweetened beverages, and ultra-processed foods, have been identified as the leading causes of diet-related chronic diseases. To promote a healthy diet and lifestyle, health-promoting, ten-chapter dietary guidelines highlighting a plant-based dietary pattern with a variety of foods range were published, advocating at least 400 g/day (5 servings) of fruits and/or vegetables (in which 3–5 servings are staple-food substitutes) and recommending limiting red meat and processed food intakes.
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