Meditation and mindfulness have a long and storied history, dating back millennia to ancient India. From there, they spread to China, Tibet, and Japan and were part of the cultural and social tapestry in those regions. Buddhism, in particular, was instrumental in their propagation. Around the 1600s, mindfulness-thought entered regions such as Mongolia, Manchuria, and Korea, but it was not until the nineteenth-century colonial encounters that it made its way to the West. In that context, it underwent a sea change, with the secularization and transformation of its contents, practices, understandings, purposes, and goals [1].
1. Introduction
At its essence, seated mindfulness meditation involves focusing attention exclusively on the present moment and one’s sensory experience. People often drift away from the present moment and begin thinking about the past, the future, or an internal narrative that consists of spontaneous thoughts, feelings, memories, or desires as they go about their daily life. These thoughts interfere with properly experiencing the surrounding environment in its entirety, such as the visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory stimuli. While sitting in mindfulness meditation, people become more aware of this resting state of mind and develop an ability to discriminate between these subjective and objective elements of one’s conscious state.
1.1. Overview of Meditation and Mindfulness
Mindfulness and meditation are broad concepts used to encompass a variety of mental training practices. In the past few decades, mindfulness and meditation have gained increasing attention from psychology and neuroscience researchers, both for their potential positive contributions to mental health and well-being as well as their implications for a better understanding of human consciousness, the mind, and the brain. This section first aims to give a brief overview of the terms mindfulness and meditation and the positive effects associated with these practices on mental health and well-being. This overview provides a foundation for understanding the best meditation techniques for mental health discussed in later sections.
Mindfulness is defined as “the awareness that arises through paying attention, on purpose, in the present moment, non-judgmentally.” This definition encompasses three qualities of mindfulness: a focus on the present, attention and awareness, and acceptance towards one’s experiences [2]. Mindfulness can be cultivated by a variety of meditative and non-meditative practices. The forms of mindfulness most discussed in the scientific literature have originated from mindfulness-based programs, which are structured exercises lasting from a few weeks to several months. Mindfulness-based stress reduction and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy are examples of two of the best-studied mindfulness-based programs used in clinical populations. Mindfulness can also be cultivated by non-meditative practices, including sports, dance, and other activities that involve concentrating attention in the present moment. In recent years, a growing body of research in psychology and neuroscience has accumulated concerning the positive effects of mindfulness on mental health and well-being [3].
2. Understanding Mental Health
Mental Health can be defined as our cognitive, behavioral, and emotional well-being. It is, in essence, what determines how we think, feel, and act. Furthermore, it influences how we handle stress and build relationships with others. Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood. Organized and classified by the World Health Organization (WHO), it encompasses numerous conditions.
Depressive Disorders refers to a broad range of mood disorders as categorized by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th Ed.; DSM-5). It is characterized by a pervasive feeling of sadness or a loss of interest in activities previously regarded as enjoyable. Symptoms include changes in sleep, appetite, energy level, concentration, daily behavior, or self-esteem. It is different from the usual feelings of sadness, grief, or bereavement that occur. The condition can deteriorate and complicate chronic physical illnesses, most notably by increasing acute morbidity and mortality. Common treatments for sad mood related problems (depression) include the prescription of psychological medication or antidepressants. This class of drugs includes Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) and Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs) and other esoteric compounds, all with uncertain efficacy and unwieldy side-effects [1].
2.1. Common Mental Health Disorders
When discussing mental health, it is often important to clarify what is meant by the term. The World Health Organization defines mental health as a “state of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community” [2]. To experience optimal mental health is to experience “mental well-being.” Mental well-being or optimal mental health can be defined as an absence of mental illness and additionally a state of happiness, emotional or effective well-being, life satisfaction, peace of mind, or psychological well-being. Accordingly, mental illnesses can be defined as disorders of thought, mood, perception, or behavior that result in significant distress or impairment. A mental disorder, as defined by the American Psychiatric Association, is “a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with distress and disability or with a significantly increased risk of suffering death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom” [3]. Mental health concerns can range from mild symptoms of deprivation of optimal mental health to serious mental disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), borderline personality disorder, and schizophrenia. Many of the most common mental health concerns are within this spectrum between optimum mental health and a mental disorder. Major depressive disorder (MDD), more frequently referred to as depression, is one of the most serious mental health illnesses and is furthermore the most prevalent mental health disorder. There are numerous potential areas of focus when discussing health policy and mental health, whether it is the burden of disease, mental health prevention, promotion, or care and treatment. In part because mental health and physical health have historically been treated separately, mental health has not been seen as a public health concern until recently.
3. Benefits of Meditation and Mindfulness for Mental Health
Meditation and mindfulness are often practiced to relax, calm the mind, reduce stress, and help people feel more focused and in control. But beyond these, specific benefits associated with meditation and mindfulness are being explored, including mental health. Scientific studies now show specific ways meditation and mindfulness can help with mental health. Mindfulness meditation can help address stress, anxiety, depression, resilience, and well-being [4]. The key themes that emerged are mindfulness as a natural kind of awareness, automatic piloting and its implications, the use of judgements, parallel experiential accounts of meditation, mindful speech, and doing different things mindfully.
Meditation has been practiced for thousands of years to understand the mind. It has a variety of styles, but in many senses, it can be summed up as a set of techniques designed to deal with one’s own thoughts, feelings, and perceptions, often through focused attention as ballpark approximations [1]. Most of the desires, fears, and hopes current in sociality are the product of habitually operating outside awareness. To gain insight into understanding the mind better and wellbeing, it is wise to first fine-tune this awareness by seeing what is happening at the moment. Habits are thoughts, feelings, and perceptions running on automatic, a ‘default mode network’ in the brain. Mindfulness refers to this mode of awareness.
3.1. Reducing Stress and Anxiety
Meditation and mindfulness techniques have a profound impact on mental health by lowering stress and anxiety. This section outlines the reduction of stress and anxiety in more detail. Dozens of studies have documented that meditation and mindfulness training alleviate symptoms associated with a wide variety of physical and mental illnesses. The most common disorders unrelated to physical ailments have been depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety, obsessive–compulsive disorder, and specific phobias [3]. The most effective and investigated techniques when dealing with these mental ailments are mindfulness-related. Clinically significant improvements in anxiety, depression, and stress levels were noted in adults who attended a mindfulness-based program [4]. More and more apps and websites, offering quick and easy meditation techniques are appearing, allowing the general public access to un-medicated alternatives in their fight against anxiety and stress. On the other hand, the world-situation as of 2020 with a pandemic causing extreme stress on health systems and the economy is unlike anything seen before in modern times. This drastic change in everyday life requires an adaptation period, during which people will face stress and anxiety due to low job security, enforced isolation, and a different pace of everyday life. The need for mental health care, tools to aid in stress management, and prevention of mental health problems has never been higher than after the boom of the Covid-19 pandemic in March 2020.
4. Types of Meditation
Although meditation means different things in different contexts, at its core, it is a means for targeting human experience. In general, people meditate in order to cultivate particular thoughts, feelings, and states of mind. Meditation can be distinguished from other activities, like prayer or sports, which are also ways of directing or having an effect on thought or experience [5]. As the forms of meditation differ, they may vary widely in their effects. Many forms of meditation will be globally effective as enhancing self-regulation, agency, and focus. However, many forms of meditation will also have a more specific effect on the specific experiences that meditors target [6].
In general, the meditative activities that have been employed in research fall into the following broad categories: Focused on Particular Objects, Monitoring Thoughts/Feelings, Awareness of Inner Experience, Monitoring Inner Experience, Body Awareness, Particular States of Feeling, Open Monitoring, and in the moment monitoring of/or attention to affective responses. Each broad category of meditation is composed of one or more narrower forms. Meditation research is in its infancy, and these categories may be further subdivided or other categories added in the future.
4.1. Mindfulness Meditation
Mindfulness meditation, like other forms of meditation, is usually practiced while seated in a quiet place. To begin, it is important to find an appropriate location. It is recommended to choose a comfortable place to sit, either cross-legged or on a chair, where movements and distractions can be minimized. After settling into position, take several deep breaths through the nose and with the mouth closed. Similarly to other forms of meditation, breathing should be slow and natural. It is suggested to inhale and exhale at least six times, letting the body relax with each breath. Soon after, the practice is said to feel comfortable, so that the buttocks feel grounded and the head is inclined slightly downwards [2].
Although each individual has an ability to concentrate attention or focus on one aspect at a time, attempting to concentrate only on the incoming breath can feel difficult. It is important to understand that this is a common difficulty. Thoughts such as “what I breathe is nice” or “this breath is too short or too long” may arise. As they arise, try not to hold on to any thoughts or feelings; consider them simply as clouds moving across the sky. It is the same way if you were driving a convertible down the highway; there are thoughts flying by without stopping [3].
5. Techniques for Beginners
Practicing meditation for the first time might feel difficult. Here are some beginner-friendly exercises that can help get started:
1. Focused attention on breath: Find a comfortable position. Close the eyes if that’s comfortable, or leave a soft gaze. Allow the breath to be natural. Notice how the air feels coming into the nostrils, filling the lungs, rising the belly, and leaving the body. If distracted, notice what distracted attention and gently guide it back to the breath.
2. Noting practice: This can be added to focused attention. Notice the breath, and then add an internal note, “breathing in” and “breathing out.” If distracted, note it and return to breath. Eventually the noting can be dropped on the experience itself. Common notes are “thinking” and “feeling.” It can be written down after the practice.
3. Body scan: Lying down with eyes closed is common for this practice. It’s okay to fall asleep. Starting with the toes, notice how they feel. Gradually move awareness up the body, noticing sensations in each area. See if tightness invites a gentle stretch. If distracted, return to where awareness last was.
4. Loving-kindness: It may be nice to start meditation with loving-kindness. Beginning with flexibility and gentleness, say internally: “May I be filled with loving-kindness. May I be well. May I be peaceful and at ease. May I be happy.” It can also be directed toward others (Spouse, family, friends, and enemies). Imagine sending all that person warmth and compassion.
5.1. Deep Breathing Exercises
Deep breathing exercises are one of the most basic meditation techniques. It is very important to learn it correctly and practice it regularly. Breathing is an involuntary reflex process; our body takes care of it, and we don’t need to think about it. It has been proved that proper deep breathing techniques can cure many diseases, and several diseases are caused due to improper breathing techniques. Learning proper breathing is very important. If done properly, it will give great relief to anxiety, anger, and restlessness. “The technique of deep breathing is to drastically reduce the number of inhalations per minute. This leads to an increase of the duration of exhalation, being almost double than the duration of inhalation” [7]. It is not about inhaling deeply; rather, shallow breathing should be regulated. Sitting or standing in a proper manner is very important. To begin, observe your breath for five minutes. Just breathe normally; there is no need to count or control. After five minutes, take a deep breath until the lungs are full of air. Wait for two seconds; now exhale the breath via nose very slowly. The duration of exhalation should be longer than inhalation. For first timers, five seconds of inhalation and ten seconds of exhalation is recommended. Not controlling your breath for a long time can bring distress. This cycle of inhalation and exhalation is considered one cycle. Initially, practice just 10 cycles and slowly increase it to 60. The beginning practice should be done in the morning and evening, as it takes very little time [1].
6. Advanced Techniques
There are many advanced techniques to consider for those who are already familiar with the basics of meditation. Although simple practices like focusing on the breath can provide their fair share of benefits, some of the more intricate and thoughtful methods can make a profound impact. So, for those striving for deeper understanding, consider the following more advanced practices.
First, get to know different traditions. While meditation is often treated as one whole bunch of similar practices, it is really like a family of approaches and techniques. These traditions have their histories, philosophies, and practices. Listening to someone who has immersed himself in one of them can be thought-provoking and entertaining [2].
Second, consider truly silent meditation retreats. Normally, meditation is done in ordinary daily life, backdrops of noise and stimulation. But being in a tranquil and quiet place can provide its own challenges and insights. Attending a silent retreat is an opportunity to step out of the busyness and hold space for contemplation. This often opens people’s hearts in ways that are difficult to believe without having tried it.
Third, look into Vipassana and the technique of body scanning. This kind of meditation is generally held in a ten-day retreat format. The first three days are dedicated to silent observation, where attention is focused solely on the sensation of the breath. After that, a different and more advanced technique is introduced that focuses attention on sensations throughout the body and lets craving or aversion rise and fall.
Fourth, try loving-kindness meditation. While many meditation techniques take a long time to see any noticeable or quantifiable results, loving-kindness meditation can actively reshape the way the heart and mind work from day one. With practice, it is possible to feel open and warm towards oneself and others, even while navigating a difficult world [1].
Finally, one can learn about newer techniques. There are many moving meditative practices being explored in scientific labs, like heart-rate training or the sacred mirror technique. It is possible to use the smartphone app SuperBetter to gamify mental fitness and develop resiliency following trauma. Other labyrinths of thought might also beckon. The landscape of meditation is dynamic and diverse; allowing creativity and curiosity can enhance experience.
6.1. Body Scan Meditation
This section presents a detailed introduction to body scan meditation, an advanced technique to enhance mental health after developing a foundational understanding through simpler mindfulness, breath awareness, or walking meditations.
Here, individuals are guided in focusing awareness on physical sensations throughout their bodies, starting from the toes and gradually shifting to the head. This technique allows for scanning the body to assess areas of tension, pain, warmth, or coolness. Body scan meditation encourages a non-judgmental awareness of sensations in the body, fostering the development of sensitivity toward bodily experiences and their contextualized meaning. Individuals also become aware of habitual emotional-physiological responses to situations, including the physical sensations accompanying these responses. Body scan meditation is an effective technique for stress reduction and the prevention of psychopathologies such as depression, anxiety, or eating disorders [6] , [8].
This technique consists of two major components: (1) awareness of the breath, engaging with it daily as a practice for mindfulness, and (2) a progressive, non-judgmental awareness of physical sensations in the body, slowly moving the attention from the toes up to the head. Beginning with a short introduction of less than 1 minute focusing on the breath as an anchor, individuals are then invited to focus attention on the toes for 30 seconds and notice any sensation like tension or tingling in this area. Specific keywords provided in the guide are meant to assist individuals during the practice: (1) “breath” during breath awareness; (2) “toes,” “foot,” “ankle,” “calf,” and “knee” as attention-moved physical body zones from 30s to 1min per zone in the beginning; (3) “thighs,” “pelvis” as attention-moved zones 1 min per zone; (4) “stomach,” “back,” and “chest” as attention-moved zones 30s per zone; (5) “shoulders,” “neck,” and “face” as attention-moved zones 30s per zone; and (6) “head” for resting the attention upon the entire body as a whole for 1 min near the end of the practice. More detailed scripts can be found in the Appendix.
7. Incorporating Mindfulness into Daily Life
Mindfulness practices are not confined to being performed on or off the cushion – there are formal mindfulness practices and varieties of daily life applications, both in the context of meditation instruction and beyond. In the latter context, mindfulness is often understood in regard to its application in a variety of daily life activities, including eating, walking, standing, running, and playing. There are also varieties of mindfulness that are not usually grouped with such activities: interactive practices, contemplations, reflections on thoughts and emotions, and mindfulness states framed as ideal orientations to daily life which can be found in Buddhism [1].
Mindfulness states orient the individual toward what is, grounding them in non-judgmental experience instead of assumptions based on memories of the past or anticipations of the future, thus cultivating curiosity, openness, acceptance, and compassion toward self and others. Such states can be adopted in interpersonal communication, thereby preventing reactive harm and creating space for interpreting situations differently, subsequently responding with wise and suitable actions instead of reactionary ones. This state is akin to attentiveness with warmth and care which may emerge in parental relationships, devotional objects, and deep friendship [2].
7.1. Mindful Eating
Mindful eating is defined as integrating mindfulness with nutritional knowledge and food choices. It involves paying attention to the experience of eating and drinking, both inside and outside of the body, without judgement. On a broader level, it is allowing the mind and body to connect with food. It asks the critical questions; why do we eat? What do we eat? How do we eat? Who do we eat with? Where do we eat? When do we eat? Most importantly it looks at how we eat. It is the understanding of one’s own unique eating schedule, preferences, environment and sensations [9]. Mindful eating has been associated with positive eating behaviors and outcomes by minimizing negative behaviors such as dieting, binge eating and disinhibition. Further, it has been shown to decrease depressive symptoms and weight gain, increase self-esteem, improve interoceptive awareness, and decrease the attention to emotions associated with overeating.
Mindful eating can be broken down into three core practices, which correspond with three core skills of mindfulness; eating with intention, attention and compassion. Mindful eating can be an important part of self-care for both general and mental health. It cultivates an awareness of habits and patterns surrounding food choices, enhances the understanding of nutrient needs, improves the connection to the body’s hunger and fullness signals, and promotes pleasure and enjoyment from eating [2].
8. Meditation Apps and Resources
As awareness about the benefits of meditation and mindfulness has spread, several apps have been developed to support individual practices. These apps allow for flexibility and user-controlled practice, which can help people easily integrate meditation and mindfulness into their daily lives. A large number of meditation apps, such as Calm, Headspace, and Insight Timer, are available to support individual meditation practice [4]. There is some preliminary evidence that the use of mindfulness apps may help with insomnia, anxiety, and user experiences while using such apps. The Fitbit wellness program, using a combination of biometric data, digital coaching, and group sessions including meditation training, showed promise in developing mindfulness. These digital tools and group support systems provide valuable resources for health and wellness when developing and maintaining self-care practices.
Growing research is supporting the feasibility and effectiveness of meditation and mindfulness programs delivered through telehealth. The COVID-19 pandemic may highlight the public health need for such interventions, and eHealth solutions may take on greater importance in the future. Existing meditation apps partially address the need for telehealth mindfulness and meditation programs, but they rarely follow an evidence-based approach that is accessible to a large population [10]. Digital mindfulness and meditation interventions, or alternatives, that are evidence-based and user-friendly could reduce the risk of experiencing increased distress during turbulent times while also providing safety and convenience.
8.1. Popular Meditation Apps
There are many apps that promote mental health in the form of mindfulness and meditation practices. Some of the most popular ones include Headspace, Calm, Insight Timer, Personal Zen, and Breathe2Relax. When looking for an app that fits your lifestyle and goals, consider whether you are hoping to use it for sleep or to pause during the day to clear your mind. For sleep, Headspace offers a nightly collection called Sleep by Headspace, which includes wind-down exercises. Calm offers a section called Sleep Stories. For pausing during the day to clear your mind, insight timer has a greater variety of free content. Personal Zen could be appealing for someone who is more familiar with video games. Breathe2Relax is a good choice for quick 5-minute guided breathing techniques that can be done anywhere [10].
Apps with a focus on mental health (including mindfulness/freeing a busy mind) include Headspace, Calm, Insight Timer, Personal Zen, and Breathe2Relax. Headspace has a subscription fee but offers a free trial period. Of particular interest to college students, Headspace offers guided sleep by W. B. Yeats. Calm is more oriented toward mental health but has sleep stories and offers a dual focus on guiding sleep and mood. Indeed, Calm’s Sleep Stories have celebrity narrators while Headspace’s Sleep by Headspace only has the voice of the app’s CEO and founder, Andy Puddicombe, alluding to concerns of a more generalized sleep/mental health “vacuum.” Insight timer is a free platform with user-generated blog posts and offerings from certified mindfulness instructors. Personal Zen is a pay-to-download game with an entertaining twist that tracks attention bias toward a positive stimulus [11].
9. Combining Meditation and Therapy
Being in therapy often entails learning new skills and more adaptive ways of thinking to co-exist peacefully with life stresses, and meditation can complement that venture. While you are developing solid goals and practice for more adaptive thinking through more traditional therapeutic approaches, like CBT, you can also practice becoming aware of thoughts, feelings, and urges as passing phenomena in your mind. You also don’t have to face difficulties driven by low moods or anxiety all alone; it can help to remember that everybody struggles with recurring negative thoughts or harsh self-judgments sometimes [2].
Therapy can help you to learn new ways of thinking that can be more solid and stable than the fixes you rely on now to cope with or flee from difficult thoughts. For this reason, therapy can be viewed as a long-term project you embark on to enhance your mental health, just as becoming a skilful meditator involves gathering and applying a toolbox of diverse practices at different levels over time. To this project, meditation practices can provide invaluable tools, strategies, and insight that can be applied directly (MBSR) and indirectly (e.g., through increased flexibility and a better reserved attention) to learning, reviewing, and reinforcing the processes involved in therapy [12].
9.1. Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)
Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) is an adaptive intervention for people with recurrent major depression in partial remission. MBCT is designed to promote and sustain mindful awareness in everyday life and is a group-based program that is delivered over eight weekly sessions and is typically 2.5 hours in length. The first four sessions are largely cognitive and psychoeducational in nature, specifically addressing the relationships between moods, thoughts, and actions and introducing formal mindfulness practices. The subsequent four sessions emphasize applying mindfulness to automatic negative thoughts and mood-related cues and developing and integrating mindfulness practice in everyday life [3].
The overarching principles of MBCT include (1) “decentering,” or viewing thoughts as temporary events in the mind, rather than the literal truths or reflections of the self; (2) training in and sustaining awareness on bodily states and feelings in order to enhance awareness of mood states; and (3) practices that cultivate an accepting and non-evaluative awareness of thoughts and feelings [13]. MBCT can be delivered in three formats; (1) as an individual course; (2) as a four-week or seven-week adaptation for people in a recent depressive episode, or (3) as a seven-week adaptation for people in palliative care. Considerable adaptations have been made for specific populations, including those with psychosis or personality disorder. Where possible, standalone curricula have been developed alongside train-the-trainer materials.
10. Cultural and Spiritual Aspects
Meditation is a practice with profound cultural roots in spiritual traditions. Different forms of meditation/wellbeing are common to particular spiritual traditions or cultures, including mindfulness, self-awareness, and concentrating practices. Two contrasting cultural/spiritual roots of meditation will be highlighted: Buddhist meditative traditions and secular approaches. All Buddhist meditative traditions have a core aspect of focusing on something to support further development of insight, self-awareness, and equanimity [1]. Mindfulness meditations are about being present with what is going on in the here and now, accepting whatever comes without necessarily acting on it. For broader forms of meditation, focus on breath or mental objects supports watching one’s thoughts in greater awareness, promoting knowledge of habitual patterns of thinking/feeling and practising equanimity towards them [14].
Bringing a secular lens to spirituality and meditation helps remove some forms of cultural/spiritual baggage that many readers may not want to bring to understanding or practicing meditation (e.g., non-self, rebirth, karma). It moves the focus from some beliefs, worldviews, or organizational activities to something more common to all human beings: lived experience. Common aspects of experience could then be naturalistic, with no a priori ideas/narratives about what is ‘out there’ in the universe. Mindfulness, self-awareness, and equanimity could then be responses to those challenges, with practiced/lived aspects expanding on particular techniques or personal experiments that could be felt to enhance any form of broadening of perspective concerning time/objectivity/non-groundedness.
10.1. Buddhist Meditation Practices
Meditation is as rich and diverse as the cultures and peoples who have practiced it throughout history. As the Buddha and his followers discovered, meditation is not a single unvarying technique, but rather a family of techniques. Within Buddhism, a diverse range of meditation approaches have developed, each oriented by Mahayana or Theravada, each embedded in the culture of a different part of the world—one in North Asia, Mongolia, and Tibet; another in the small countries of Southeast Asia. Buddhism has taken root in the West, and alongside ancient Asian Buddhist practices, new Western approaches to meditation such as the relaxation response, and centering prayer, are emerging. Understanding these cultural and spiritual contexts enhances the appreciation of meditation’s potential with a human being, and deepens the understanding of how to set out on the transformative path of awareness [1]. Though there is no religious component in Jon Kabat-Zinn’s (1982) Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, this approach is nonetheless rooted in the Buddhist tradition. Kabat-Zinn excludes the religious aspects of Buddhism—the belief system, ethics, understanding of the mind and world—while maintaining its core meditation techniques. In fact, all Western-derived meditation practices correspond in some way with Buddhist meditation traditions, and would likely not exist in their current forms had the Buddha and his followers not first discovered them centuries before. It is clear that throughout history many peoples of diverse cultures and perspectives have engaged in the practice of meditation.
11. Research and Studies
As the term ‘meditation’ is broad, research into such modalities has been difficult to conduct systematically. Bearing in mind the differences in meditation types, contexts and conditions is imperative to fully appreciate the outcome of the particularly varied body of knowledge. Nevertheless, there have been more studies with increased methodological rigour resulting in randomised controlled trials and systematic reviews. Research has grown to include both clinical and non-clinical populations [4]. Broader definitions may include any opportunity to stop and reflect, including art, nature, exercise and time spent with family or friends, any context where mind may take precedence over matter and simplistic distractions. It may be better to think about the benefits of a range of contemplative modalities rather than focusing on one technique.
Some modalities will be better suited to certain personalities, conditions, or contexts than others. Following accepted protocol may limit benefits. Alternatively, a creative, novel approach may bring an unexpected insight to one’s life journey. Practices such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) have developed from formal meditation practices. Both are 8-week-long programmes with home practice. MBSR adapts formal meditation practices to give a more generalised approach to mindfulness, while MBCT focuses on depression using a blend of cognitive and mindfulness approaches. Increasing amounts of evidence support their efficacy. MBSR has been shown to be effective in reducing stress and improving mood in diverse settings including health, education and workplace.
Adaptation of MBCT for other conditions has shown preliminary promise. Internationally and nationally, qualitative studies, systematic reviews and randomised controlled trials have documented the efficacy of various contemplative practices in reducing the symptoms of anxiety, overwhelm and despair, which are the predominant symptoms and natural sequelae of a global pandemic. Guidance from various professional bodies supports the integration of meditation practices into workplace and educational settings [2]. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been increased research and exponential interest in meditation techniques through apps, YouTube videos, social media, websites, books and podcasts. Systematic reviews of meditation-based tools have shown reduced anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, stress, blood pressure, cortisol levels and other physiologic markers of stress, improved sleep, perceived health, quality of life and well-being, as well as greater acceptance, compassion, self-control and attention. Regular meditation practice can benefit health service workers and patients with pre-existing mental illness regardless of age, sex or diagnosis.
11.1. Scientific Evidence on Meditation and Mental Health
Meditation and mindfulness are practices linked to the development of emotional, psychological, and social well-being. In a report spanning publications from 2015 to 2020, mindfulness is described as noticing the present moment in an accepting manner and engaging in practices that enhance this focus. Meditation is defined as intensive states of focused attention using certain techniques, including mindfulness. This article focuses on the scientific evidence for these practices and their impact on mental well-being. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction is a class of meditation designed to balance stress and general mental health. Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy focuses on depression, examining habitual patterns of rumination.
[4] states that research has found it difficult to systematically conduct investigation into meditation for therapeutic uses, and rigorous peer-reviewed outcomes have emerged only over the past 25 years. Recently, several studies including randomised controlled trials and systematic reviews have occurred. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) adapts formal meditation for a generalised mindfulness approach, while Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) adapts it solely for depression. Symptoms of a sense of hopelessness, overwhelm, and despair predominantly revolving around anxiety, stress, and worry are prevalent due to the global pandemic. Eight systematic reviews are mentioned indicating the meditation-based tools were associated with significant reductions in the following: anxiety; depression; post-traumatic stress disorder; stress; blood pressure; and salivary cortisol levels. More than 8 hours of home/regular practice was associated with reductions in blood pressure and cortisol. There were benefits found for health service workers, patients, and health service users with experimental exposure to mindfulness practices via either trials or apps made. It should be noted that non-meditation controls were not considered to be used in the trials [15].
12. Conclusion
The teachings outlined in this paper build upon one another in a cumulative manner. Beginning with an examination of the nature of paticcasamuppada and the implications of the world as normally experienced, it is shown that this experience is both ordinary and natural and is nonetheless capable of being affected and transformed with beneficial consequences for wellbeing [1]. It is here explained that the influential abhidharma analysis of the mind is capable of bearing fruit when it is expounded clearly; but as Bhikkhu Bodhi notes, “Most people today tend to regard [the dhatu] as a fanciful and intricate theoretical construction with little relevance for a rounded understanding of the mind”. To illustrate that these mundane notions are applicable to the contemporary, fast-paced obsession with externally generating wellbeing, it is shown to Ananda in the Mahaparinibbana-suttanta how in response to stress people tend to ignore; and reverting to the original, habitual pattern of thinking brings no new insight. Following these thoughts is a consideration of cultivation as a different way of understanding this default treatment of paticcasamuppada in dependent threes over prior-future minds and the consequent narrowing of experience temporally.
The analytic consideration of mental events is then linked to viewing their mutual relatedness as causative with reference to a common, ontological ground: the momentariness and flux of reality. This analysis culminates in understanding wellbeing as unaffected by the peculiarities of the external world and dependent only on one’s internal response to it. Thus, the Buddha explains to Ananda that “to untie this dangling rope, it would be needed to become aware of the conditions under which this mental event would take place and to mindfully assess the options for taking action in order to no longer live in confusion over it.” In the final closing, it is suggested that “on understanding compassion as a natural response and the latent, instinctive tendency of each person, it is shown how compassion cannot be explained within this framework” [12].
12.1. Key Takeaways
Use meditation and mindfulness techniques to cultivate and maintain mental health. Consider the possibilities—breath counting, the body scan, loving-kindness, and the two-part mindful breathing practice. Take a moment or a stretch of time to cultivate a more mindful way of being. These practices will only increase awareness of how and where these opportunities are occurring. Meditation is a friendly invitation—not an impatient demand—with no expectations or predetermined results. It is an opportunity to stop and connect in an open-hearted, unfolding spirit of discovery [2].
Consider a commitment to one or more of these practices over the course of a week, with an invitation to revisit this exploration as needed. Take some time to reflect on how you may want to practice these techniques individually. Try asking yourself or reviewing the following questions:
1. Are there one or two specific practices that resonate strongly? 2. Would it be helpful to try practicing with the audio at first? 3. Would it be most beneficial to try one practice for several days in a row? 4. Would it be useful to think about a few specific times to practice, or a general time of day for practice?
References:
[1] M. Wechter, “An Exploration Of Mindfulness Meditation:Buddhist Roots And Secular Branches,” 2017. [PDF]
[2] S. R. . Englund-Helmeke, “Mindfulness and Well-Being,” 2014. [PDF]
[3] T. M Edenfield and S. Atezaz Saeed, “An update on mindfulness meditation as a self-help treatment for anxiety and depression,” 2012. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
[4] C. Behan, “The benefits of meditation and mindfulness practices during times of crisis such as COVID-19,” 2020. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
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